From Baseline to Follow-Up: Counterfactual Spine DXA Image Synthesis in UK Biobank Using a Causal Hierarchical Variational Autoencoder

Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is widely used for large-scale skeletal assessment, yet learning controllable and interpretable factor-specific anatomical variation remains challenging. We propose a metadata-conditioned causal hierarchical variational autoencoder (CHVAE) for causally consiste...